Welcome to BrainBlooms

Chapter 1

Nutrition in Plants

📌 Introduction to Nutrition

Nutrition is the process by which living organisms obtain food and utilize it for their vital functions such as:

• 🌿 Growth
• 🧩 Repair of tissues
• 👶 Reproduction
• ⚡ Energy production

Food contains nutrients that are essential for life:

• 🍞 Carbohydrates → main source of energy
• 🍳 Proteins → growth and repair
• 🥑 Fats → energy storage and insulation
• 🍊 Vitamins → regulation of body functions
• 🧂 Minerals → strong bones, blood, and enzymes

🌿 Modes of Nutrition in Plants

1️⃣ Autotrophic Nutrition

Autotrophs = organisms that make their own food.
Green plants use sunlight, water, carbon dioxide, and minerals to prepare food.
🌍 They are called Producers since they form the base of almost all food chains.
🌞 Example: Green plants 🌿

2️⃣ Heterotrophic Nutrition

Heterotrophs cannot prepare their own food. They depend on plants or other organisms.
Includes animals, fungi, and some plants.

🌱 Some plants like:

• Cuscuta (Amarbel) → parasitic
• Pitcher plant → insectivorous
• Mushrooms → saprotrophic

☀️ Photosynthesis – The Key to Life

✨ Definition
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants prepare food using:
☀️ Sunlight + 💧 Water + 🌬️ Carbon dioxide + 🌿 Chlorophyll
➡️ Produces Glucose (food) + Oxygen (O₂)

🧮 Photosynthesis Equation
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → (light, chlorophyll) → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

🌬️ Carbon dioxide + 💧 Water + ☀️ Sunlight + 🌿 Chlorophyll ➡️ 🍬 Glucose + 🌬️ Oxygen

🔄 Steps of Photosynthesis

• 🌞 Absorption of sunlight by chlorophyll in leaves.
• 💧 Absorption of water and minerals by roots → transported via xylem.
• 🌬️ Intake of CO₂ through stomata.
• 🍬 Synthesis of glucose using CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight.
• 🌬️ Oxygen is released as a byproduct.

💡 Importance

• 🌍 Source of food for almost all living beings.
• 🌬️ Provides oxygen for respiration.
• 🔄 Maintains balance of O₂ and CO₂ in atmosphere.

🍃 Anatomy and Special Features of Leaves

• 🍃 Leaves = "food factories" of plants.
• 🔍 Stomata: tiny pores controlled by guard cells → exchange of gases.
• 🟢 Chloroplasts: organelles containing chlorophyll → site of photosynthesis.
• 🌊 Vascular bundles (xylem & phloem): transport water, minerals, and food.

🥗 Beyond Carbohydrates – Synthesis of Plant Food

Photosynthesis produces glucose (carbohydrate). But plants also need:

• 🍳 Proteins (require Nitrogen)
• 🥑 Fats (energy storage)

⚡ Plants cannot use atmospheric N₂ directly.
➡️ Rhizobium bacteria convert N₂ into usable form (nitrogen fixation).

🌱 Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

• 🍄 Saprotrophic Nutrition – feed on dead and decaying matter (Example: Mushrooms)
• 🌿 Parasitic Nutrition – depend on host plants for food (Example: Cuscuta)
• 🪰 Insectivorous Plants – trap insects to get nitrogen (Examples: Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap, Sundew)
• 🤝 Symbiotic Nutrition – two organisms help each other (Examples: Lichens → fungus + alga, Leguminous plants + Rhizobium)

🚰 Nutrition and Transport in Plants

• 🌱 Roots absorb water + minerals.
• 🚿 Xylem: carries water & minerals upward.
• 🍬 Phloem: transports food (sugar/starch) to all parts of plant.

🌍 Replenishment of Soil Nutrients

• 🌾 Continuous farming reduces soil nutrients.
• 🐄 Manures & 🧪 Fertilizers → enrich soil.
• 🌱 Leguminous plants with Rhizobium naturally increase nitrogen content.

📝 Key Points to Remember

• ✔️ Plants are autotrophs.
• ✔️ Chlorophyll, sunlight, water, CO₂ → essential for photosynthesis.
• ✔️ Nitrogen from soil → needed for protein synthesis.
• ✔️ Plants may also use saprotrophic, parasitic, insectivorous, or symbiotic nutrition.
• ✔️ Soil nutrients must be replenished for healthy plant growth.

Chapter 2

Nutrition in Animals

📌 What is Animal Nutrition?

Animal nutrition is the process by which animals take in, break down, absorb, and utilize food for:

• ⚡ Energy (movement, daily activities)
• 🌱 Growth & Repair (tissues, organs)
• 🧠 Body Functions (hormones, enzymes, immunity)

👉 Unlike plants, animals are heterotrophs, meaning they depend on plants or other animals for food.

🔄 Steps of Nutrition in Animals

👩‍⚕️ Human Digestive System – Organs & Functions

Chapter 3

Heat

🌡️ What Is Heat?

Heat is a form of energy that causes substances to feel hot or cold.

It is transferred from one object to another due to a difference in temperature.

Temperature measures how hot or cold an object is and is usually measured in °C (Celsius) with a thermometer.

Heat always flows from a hotter object → to a cooler object → until both reach the same temperature (thermal equilibrium).

🔄 Difference Between Heat and Temperature

⚡ Modes of Heat Transfer

1️⃣ Conduction 🔗

Heat transfer by direct contact, mainly in solids.

Example: A metal spoon gets hot when kept in hot soup.

Conductors (like metals) allow heat to pass easily.

Insulators (like wood, plastic, rubber) do not.

👉 Extra Tip: That's why cooking utensils often have wooden/plastic handles for safety.

2️⃣ Convection 🌊

Heat transfer by movement of liquids or gases.

Hot fluids rise, cold fluids sink → creating convection currents.

Example: Boiling water, sea breeze, land breeze.

👉 Extra Tip: Air conditioners are placed high to cool the rising warm air.

3️⃣ Radiation ☀️

Heat transfer without any medium (even in vacuum).

Example: Heat from the Sun reaches Earth.

Dark surfaces absorb more heat; light surfaces reflect more.

👉 Extra Tip: We wear light-colored clothes in summer to stay cool.

🌡️ Thermometer – Measuring Temperature

Clinical thermometer: Measures body temperature (35°C – 42°C).

Laboratory thermometer: Measures temperature of objects (-10°C – 110°C).

Digital thermometer: Electronic, easy to read.

Infrared thermometer: Non-contact temperature measurement.

🌍 Sea Breeze & Land Breeze

Sea Breeze 🌊→🏖️ (Daytime)

Land heats faster than water → warm air rises over land → cool air from sea flows toward land.

Land Breeze 🏖️→🌊 (Nighttime)

Land cools faster than water → warm air rises over sea → cool air from land flows toward sea.

🧪 Applications of Heat in Daily Life

• 🥘 Cooking: Heat transfer through conduction (pan), convection (boiling), radiation (grilling).
• 🏠 Insulation: Houses use insulating materials to keep heat in/out.
• 👕 Clothing: Dark clothes in winter, light in summer.
• 🌡️ Thermos Flask: Reduces all three types of heat transfer to keep drinks hot/cold.

Chapter 4

Acids, Bases and Salts

🧪 Introduction to Acids, Bases, and Salts

Acids, bases, and salts are three important categories of chemical substances that play a vital role in our daily lives.

They are found in foods, medicines, cleaning products, and many natural substances.

🍋 Acids

Acids are substances that taste sour and turn blue litmus paper red.

Examples:

• Citric acid – found in citrus fruits like lemons and oranges
• Acetic acid – found in vinegar
• Lactic acid – found in curd
• Ascorbic acid – vitamin C
• Hydrochloric acid – found in our stomach for digestion

Properties of acids:

• Sour taste
• Turn blue litmus red
• Conduct electricity in solution
• React with metals to produce hydrogen gas
• React with bases to form salt and water (neutralization)

🧼 Bases

Bases are substances that taste bitter and feel soapy to touch. They turn red litmus paper blue.

Examples:

• Sodium hydroxide – used in soap making
• Calcium hydroxide – used in whitewashing
• Ammonium hydroxide – used in household cleaners
• Magnesium hydroxide – found in antacids

Properties of bases:

• Bitter taste
• Soapy feel
• Turn red litmus blue
• Conduct electricity in solution
• React with acids to form salt and water (neutralization)

🧂 Salts

Salts are formed when an acid reacts with a base (neutralization reaction).

Examples:

• Sodium chloride – common salt
• Potassium nitrate – used in fertilizers
• Calcium sulfate – used in plaster of Paris
• Sodium bicarbonate – baking soda

Properties of salts:

• Usually have a salty taste
• Most are crystalline solids
• Many are soluble in water
• Conduct electricity in solution

🌈 pH Scale

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. It ranges from 0 to 14:

• pH less than 7 → Acidic
• pH equal to 7 → Neutral
• pH greater than 7 → Basic

Indicators are substances that change color in acidic or basic solutions:

• Litmus paper (blue/red)
• Phenolphthalein (colorless in acid, pink in base)
• Turmeric (yellow in acid, red in base)
• China rose (magenta in acid, green in base)

⚗️ Neutralization Reaction

When an acid and a base react, they form salt and water. This is called neutralization.

General equation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Example: Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water

Neutralization has many practical applications:

• Antacids neutralize excess stomach acid
• Soil treatment to neutralize acidity or alkalinity
• Treating ant and bee stings (basic and acidic respectively)
• Industrial processes

Chapter 5

Physical and Chemical Changes

🔄 Introduction to Changes

Changes are happening all around us. Some changes are temporary, while others are permanent.

Changes can be classified into two main types: physical changes and chemical changes.

🏃 Physical Changes

Physical changes are changes in which no new substance is formed. The chemical composition remains the same.

Characteristics of physical changes:

• No new substance is formed
• Changes are usually reversible
• Only physical properties change (shape, size, state)
• No change in mass

Examples of physical changes:

• Melting of ice
• Boiling of water
• Dissolving sugar in water
• Crushing a can
• Cutting paper
• Stretching a rubber band

🧪 Chemical Changes

Chemical changes are changes in which one or more new substances are formed. The chemical composition changes.

Characteristics of chemical changes:

• New substance(s) are formed
• Changes are usually irreversible
• Chemical properties change
• Often accompanied by energy changes (heat, light, sound)
• Change in mass may occur

Examples of chemical changes:

• Burning of paper
• Rusting of iron
• Cooking food
• Digestion of food
• Photosynthesis
• Ripening of fruits

🔍 Differences Between Physical and Chemical Changes

🔥 Rusting of Iron

Rusting is a chemical change where iron reacts with oxygen and moisture to form rust (iron oxide).

Chemical equation: Iron + Oxygen + Water → Rust (Iron oxide)

Prevention of rusting:

• Painting
• Oiling or greasing
• Galvanization (coating with zinc)
• Alloying (stainless steel)

🍯 Crystallization

Crystallization is a physical change used to obtain pure crystals of a substance from its solution.

Example: Formation of sugar crystals, salt crystals.

It is a purification technique used in industries.

🌫️ Galvanization

Galvanization is the process of coating iron or steel with a thin layer of zinc to prevent rusting.

It is a common method used to protect iron objects from corrosion.

Chapter 6

Respiration in Organisms

🌬️ What is Respiration?

Respiration is the process by which living organisms obtain energy by breaking down food (mainly glucose), usually in the presence of oxygen, with the release of carbon dioxide and water.

⚡ It is a biochemical process that takes place in every living cell.

💪 Respiration releases energy required for all life processes like movement, growth, repair, etc.

📖 Equation for complete (aerobic) respiration:

Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2 ⟶ 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

❓ Why is Respiration Necessary?

• 🔋 All cells perform functions like nutrition, excretion, and growth, for which they need energy.
• 🍽️ This energy comes from food, released by respiration.
• 😴 Even when resting or sleeping, organisms require continuous energy.

🧬 Types of Respiration

1️⃣ Aerobic Respiration

• 🌬️ Occurs in the presence of oxygen.
• 🔥 Glucose completely breaks down into carbon dioxide and water, releasing a large amount of energy.
• 🧫 Takes place in mitochondria.
• Equation: Glucose + O2 ⟶ CO2 + H2O + Energy
• 👩‍🦰 Example organisms: Humans, birds, lions, cows, goats, frogs, fishes.

2️⃣ Anaerobic Respiration

• 🚫 Occurs without oxygen.
• ⚡ Less energy is released (partial breakdown).
• 🍞 In yeast → Alcohol + CO₂ (used in baking & brewing).
• 🏃 In muscles → Lactic acid buildup (causes cramps).
• Equations:
• Yeast: Glucose ⟶ Alcohol + CO2 + Energy
• Muscles: Glucose ⟶ Lactic acid + Energy

📊 Difference Table: Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

🫁 Breathing vs Respiration

• Breathing (Physical process): 🌬️ Taking in O₂ and giving out CO₂.
• Inhalation: Chest expands, diaphragm contracts.
• Exhalation: Chest shrinks, diaphragm relaxes.
• Respiration (Cell process): 🔬 Chemical breakdown of glucose inside cells.

🫀 Human Respiratory System

Pathway: 👃 Nostrils → Nasal cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Lungs → Alveoli

• 🫁 Alveoli: Exchange site for O₂ and CO₂.
• 🎯 Diaphragm: Muscle sheet that helps breathing.

🐾 Respiration in Other Animals

• 🪳 Insects: Spiracles + tracheae network.
• 🪱 Earthworms: Through moist skin.
• 🐟 Fishes: Gills extract dissolved oxygen.
• 🐸 Frogs: Lungs on land + moist skin in water.
• 🐶 Mammals (cats, dogs, cows, lions): Lungs like humans.

🌱 Respiration in Plants

• 🌞 Respire day & night (photosynthesis only in light).
• 🍃 Stomata: Gas exchange in leaves.
• 🌱 Roots: Absorb O₂ from soil air spaces.

🦠 Respiration in Microorganisms

• 🧫 Amoeba: Diffusion through cell membrane.
• 🍺 Yeast & bacteria: Anaerobic (fermentation).

🔋 ATP – The Energy Currency

Energy is stored as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

⚡ ATP powers movement, transport, synthesis, and all cell activities.

📌 Important Facts & Activities

• 🫁 Breathing rate: Higher during exercise, lower at rest.
• 🏃 Cramps: Due to lactic acid buildup in muscles.
• 🍞 Yeast in bread: CO₂ makes bread rise.
• 🌍 Both plants and animals respire all the time.

📝 Exam Practice Questions

1. ✍️ Define respiration. Write its chemical equation.
2. 🔄 List differences between aerobic & anaerobic respiration.
3. 🐟 How is respiration in fish and earthworm different from humans?
4. 🏃 Why do we get muscle cramps after intense exercise?
5. 🌱 Explain gas exchange in plants.

✅ Conclusion

Respiration is a vital process that supplies the energy for all life activities. It takes different forms — aerobic, anaerobic — in different organisms. Understanding respiration explains movement, health, and survival in living beings.

Chapter 7

Transportation in Animals and Plants

🌱 Introduction

All living organisms need food 🍞, water 💧, and oxygen 🌬️ for survival. After these materials enter the body, they must reach each and every cell.

Similarly, waste materials 🧪 produced in the cells must be removed from the body.

👉 To perform all this, living organisms need a transport system 🚚 — just like vehicles transport goods in a city.

In animals 🐾, this transportation is done by blood and the circulatory system.

In plants 🌿, it is done by xylem and phloem.

🩸 Transportation in Animals

❤️ 1. Circulatory System

The circulatory system transports:

• 🍎 Food and oxygen to all parts of the body.
• 💨 Waste materials like carbon dioxide away from the cells.

Main parts of the circulatory system:

• 💓 Heart
• 🩸 Blood
• 💻 Blood vessels

💖 2. The Heart

The heart is a muscular organ located slightly towards the left side of the chest.

About the size of your fist ✊.

Its function is to pump blood throughout the body continuously.

🫀 Structure of the Heart

The heart has four chambers:

• Right Atrium
• Right Ventricle
• Left Atrium
• Left Ventricle

🫧 This division keeps oxygen-rich blood (O₂) separate from carbon dioxide-rich blood (CO₂).

Right side → Deoxygenated blood

Left side → Oxygenated blood

🔁 Working of the Heart

1. 🩸 Deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body enters the right atrium.
2. ➡️ Goes to the right ventricle.
3. 🌬️ The right ventricle pumps it to the lungs, where it becomes oxygenated.
4. 💨 Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium.
5. ❤️ From there, it moves to the left ventricle, which pumps it to the entire body through arteries.

💡 This process continues non-stop throughout life.

💓 3. The Heartbeat

Each contraction and relaxation of the heart = one heartbeat 💓

A heartbeat consists of:

• Contraction (systole)
• Relaxation (diastole)

🕒 Normal rate: about 72 beats per minute

👉 You can feel it by placing your hand on your chest.

👨‍⚕️ Doctors use a stethoscope to listen to heartbeats.

🎧 Stethoscope

Contains a chest piece, diaphragm, rubber tube, and earpieces.

Helps doctors listen to heart ❤️ and lung 💨 sounds.

🩸 4. Blood

Blood is the red fluid that flows in our body — carrying oxygen, food, and wastes.

🧬 Components of Blood

🩻 5. Blood Vessels

Blood travels through three main types of vessels:

• Arteries 🔴 – Carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart. Have thick walls (high pressure).
• Veins 🔵 – Carry carbon dioxide-rich blood back to the heart. Have thin walls and valves.
• Capillaries 🧫 – Tiny, thin vessels connecting arteries and veins. Allow exchange of gases, food, and wastes between cells and blood.

🚽 6. Excretion in Animals

Excretion → Removal of waste materials produced inside the body.

🧍‍♂️ Human Excretory System

Main organs:

• 🧫 Kidneys
• 🚰 Ureters
• 💧 Urinary Bladder
• 🚿 Urethra

⚙️ Process of Excretion

1. 🧫 Kidneys filter waste and excess water → forms urine.
2. 🚰 Ureters carry urine to the urinary bladder.
3. 💧 Bladder stores urine temporarily.
4. 🚿 Urethra releases urine out of the body.

💡 This keeps the water and salt balance healthy in the body.

🌾 Transportation in Plants

Plants also need to transport water, minerals, and food to survive and grow.

💧 1. Transport of Water and Minerals

🌱 Roots absorb water and minerals from the soil.

🚿 These move upward through xylem vessels.

🪵 Xylem

Tube-like structure made of dead cells.

Carries water and minerals from roots → stem → leaves.

This movement is called Ascent of Sap 🌊.

🍃 2. Transport of Food

🍽️ Leaves prepare food via photosynthesis.

This food must reach all parts of the plant — roots, fruits, stem, etc.

This is done by phloem.

🌿 Phloem

Made of living cells.

Transports prepared food from leaves → all parts of the plant.

Works in both directions (up & down).

🌬️ 3. Excretion in Plants

Plants also remove waste materials, but they lack special excretory organs.

They remove wastes by:

• 🌿 Storing waste in old leaves or bark (which later fall off)
• 🍃 Releasing gases (O₂, CO₂) through stomata
• 🌲 Exuding gums and resins through bark
• 🌱 Releasing some wastes into soil through roots

🧾 Summary

🧠 Key Terms

• ❤️ Circulatory System – System that circulates blood through the body
• 💓 Heartbeat – Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart
• 🔴 Hemoglobin – Red pigment in RBCs carrying oxygen
• 🚽 Excretion – Process of removing wastes from the body
• 🌊 Xylem – Transports water & minerals in plants
• 🍃 Phloem – Transports prepared food in plants

Chapter 8

Reproduction in Plants

🌱 Introduction

All living things reproduce to continue their species.

Reproduction means the process by which new living organisms are produced from existing ones.

In plants 🌿, reproduction happens in three ways:

• Vegetative Propagation
• Asexual Reproduction
• Sexual Reproduction

🌿 1. Vegetative Propagation

🌱 Definition:
When a new plant grows from the vegetative parts of the parent plant — such as roots, stems, or leaves — instead of seeds.

🌳 Vegetative Parts Used:

• Root → e.g., Carrot, Sweet potato 🍠
• Stem → e.g., Rose, Jasmine, Money plant 🌹
• Leaf → e.g., Bryophyllum 🍃 (buds grow on leaf edges)

🌸 This method is fast, natural, and produces plants identical to the parent.

🍄 2. Asexual Reproduction

🌾 Definition:
New plants are produced from a single parent without the involvement of male or female gametes.

Common Method → By Spores 🍞
Seen in fungi (like bread mould), mosses, and ferns 🌿.

Spores are tiny, light reproductive bodies.

When conditions are right (moisture + warmth), spores germinate into new plants.

🌸 3. Sexual Reproduction in Plants

🌺 Flower — The Reproductive Part
The flower is the main reproductive organ of a plant.
It has four main parts (whorls):

💠 Parts of the Reproductive Organs

🌾 Stamen (Male Part)
Has two parts:

• Anther – produces pollen grains (male gametes)
• Filament – supports the anther

🌼 Carpel (Female Part)
Has three parts:

• Stigma – receives pollen
• Style – a tube connecting stigma and ovary
• Ovary – contains ovules (female gametes)

🐝 4. Pollination

🌸 Definition:
Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of a flower.

✨ Types of Pollination:

• Self-pollination 🌷
  Pollen transferred from anther to stigma of the same flower or same plant.
• Cross-pollination 🌻
  Pollen transferred from one flower to another (different plant of same kind).
  Done by wind 💨, water 💧, insects 🐝, and birds 🕊️.

🌾 5. Fertilization

Once pollination occurs:

• The pollen grain grows a pollen tube down the style.
• The male gamete travels through the tube and fuses with the ovule in the ovary.
• This fusion is called fertilization 💞.

🎯 Result of Fertilization:

• The fertilized ovule → becomes a seed 🌰.
• The ovary → becomes a fruit 🍎.

🌰 6. Seed Formation and Germination

After fertilization, seeds develop inside the fruit.

When seeds get air, water, and warmth, they germinate and grow into a new plant 🌱.

🌦️ Conditions Needed for Germination:

• 💧 Water (for softening seed coat)
• 🌬️ Air (for respiration)
• 🌡️ Warmth (for cell growth)

🌳 7. Dispersal of Seeds

Plants cannot move, so they depend on different agents to spread their seeds.

🚀 Methods of Seed Dispersal:

🌾 Importance: Prevents overcrowding and helps plants grow in new places.

🧾 Summary

🧠 Key Terms

• 🌿 Reproduction – Process by which living beings produce offspring
• 🌾 Vegetative Propagation – Growing new plants from vegetative parts
• 🍄 Spore – Asexual reproductive body
• 🌸 Pollination – Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
• 💞 Fertilization – Fusion of male and female gametes
• 🌱 Germination – Growth of a new plant from a seed

Chapter 9

Motion and Time

🌱 Introduction

Everything around us is in motion 🚶‍♂️🚗🌍.

Some things move slowly like a snail 🐌, and some move very fast like an airplane ✈️.

Motion means a change in the position of an object with time ⏱️.

To study motion, we must understand distance, speed, and time ⌛.

🚶‍♀️ 1. Motion

When an object changes its position with time, it is said to be in motion.

For example:

• A moving car 🚗
• A flying bird 🕊️
• A swinging pendulum ⏰
• The Earth revolving around the Sun 🌞

🪑 Objects at Rest

If an object does not change its position with time, it is said to be at rest.

Example:

• A chair in your room 🪑
• A tree 🌳
• A parked bicycle 🚲

📏 2. Types of Motion

There are several kinds of motion, depending on how the object moves:

➤ (a) Linear Motion ➖

When an object moves in a straight line, it is called linear motion.

Examples:

• A car moving on a straight road 🚗
• A boy running in a straight path 🏃‍♂️

➤ (b) Circular Motion 🔄

When an object moves around a fixed point in a circular path, it is said to be in circular motion.

Examples:

• The motion of the Earth around the Sun 🌞
• The blades of a fan when it rotates 🌬️
• The hands of a clock 🕒

➤ (c) Periodic Motion ⏰

When an object repeats its motion after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic motion.

Examples:

• The pendulum of a clock ⏳
• The heartbeat ❤️
• The motion of a swing 🎠

📏 3. Measurement of Distance

Distance is the total length of the path covered by a moving object.

It tells us how much ground an object has covered.

The SI unit of distance is metre (m) 📏.

Other commonly used units:

• 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 metres (m)
• 1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm)
• 1 centimetre (cm) = 10 millimetres (mm)

⚙️ 4. Measuring Tools

We use different instruments to measure distance depending on accuracy and scale:

• Ruler or scale 📏 – for small lengths
• Measuring tape 🧵 – for longer distances
• Odometer 🚗 – in vehicles to measure distance travelled

⏱️ 5. Time and Its Measurement

Time is the ongoing sequence of events from past to present to future.

We measure time to understand how long something takes ⌚.

⌛ Instruments used to measure time:

• Sundial ☀️ – used in ancient times (uses shadow of the Sun)
• Water clock 💧 – used water flow to measure time
• Sand clock ⏳ – based on the flow of sand
• Pendulum clock ⏰ – used in earlier times
• Stopwatch or digital clock ⏱️ – used today for accuracy

⚡ 6. Speed

Speed tells how fast or slow an object moves.

💡 Formula:
Speed = Distance ÷ Time

📏 Units:

• SI unit of speed = metre per second (m/s)
• Other common unit = kilometre per hour (km/h)

🧮 Example:

If a car travels 100 km in 2 hours,
Speed = 100 ÷ 2 = 50 km/h

👉 Greater the speed, faster the motion!

📉 7. Uniform and Non-uniform Motion

🔹 Uniform Motion

When an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion.

➡️ Example: A car moving 10 m every second on a straight road.

🔸 Non-uniform Motion

When an object covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in non-uniform motion.

➡️ Example: A car moving through city traffic 🚦

📊 8. Measuring Speed with Odometer and Speedometer

• Speedometer 🚘: Shows the speed of a vehicle at a given instant.
• Odometer 🔢: Shows the distance travelled by the vehicle.

By using both, we can calculate the average speed of a vehicle.

📈 9. Graphical Representation of Motion

Graphs help us visualize motion.

🪧 Distance-Time Graph

It shows how distance changes with time.

• Uniform motion → Straight line graph 📏
• Non-uniform motion → Curved graph 🌀

👉 The slope of the graph shows the speed of motion.

🧠 10. Key Formulas

🌟 11. Summary

• Motion = Change in position with time ⏱️
• Distance measured in metres 📏
• Time measured in seconds ⌚
• Speed = Distance ÷ Time ⚡
• Uniform motion → Equal distances in equal times
• Non-uniform motion → Unequal distances in equal times
• Graphs help us understand motion visually 📈

🧩 Fun Fact Section

• ✨ The fastest land animal — Cheetah — runs about 112 km/h! 🐆
• 🕰️ The pendulum clock was invented by Christiaan Huygens in 1656!
• 🌍 The Earth moves around the Sun at a speed of about 30 km/s!